Review of Mold Toxins

AFLATOXIN M1

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), a metabolite of aflatoxin B1 from Aspergillus, is among the most potent environmental carcinogens. Found in grains, nuts, milk, and meats, it causes liver damage, cancer, and severe systemic effects. Susceptibility varies by age, sex, and diet. Aflatoxin inhibits leukocyte proliferation, and toxicity increases when combined with ochratoxin or zearalenone.

OCHRATOXIN A (OTA)

Ochratoxin A (OTA), a nephrotoxic, immunotoxic, and carcinogenic mycotoxin from Aspergillus and Penicillium, is mainly inhaled in water-damaged buildings or ingested via contaminated foods. OTA causes kidney and neurological damage, oxidative stress in the brain and kidneys, and reduced dopamine levels in animal studies.

STERIGMATOCYSTIN (STG)

Sterigmatocystin (STG), a mycotoxin related to aflatoxin, is produced by Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Bipolaris. Found in damp dust and various foods, it is carcinogenic—especially to the liver and GI tract—and toxic to the liver, kidneys, and immune system. STG exposure increases oxidative stress and depletes antioxidants like glutathione.

RORIDIN E

Roridin E, a highly toxic macrocyclic trichothecene from Fusarium, Myrothecium, and Stachybotrys (black mold), is common in water-damaged buildings and contaminated grain. It inhibits protein synthesis and, even at low levels, can cause severe neurological, immune, endocrine, cardiovascular, and gastrointestinal effects.

VERRUCARIN A (VRA)

Verrucarin A (VRA) is a toxic trichothecene mycotoxin produced by molds like Stachybotrys, Fusarium, and Myrothecium. Found in water-damaged buildings and contaminated grains, VRA is a small molecule that easily enters cells. It targets the gut lining, bone marrow, and spleen, damaging cells by blocking protein/DNA synthesis, harming mitochondria, and generating oxidative stress. Exposure can lead to immune issues, vomiting, skin rashes, and bleeding lesions.

ENNIATIN B

Enniatin B is a cyclohexadepsipeptide toxin produced by Fusarium, a common cereal-contaminating fungus. High levels have been detected in grains worldwide. Its toxicity arises from inhibiting acyl-CoA cholesterol acyltransferase, depolarizing mitochondria, and suppressing osteoclastic bone resorption. Enniatin also has antibiotic properties, and chronic exposure can cause weight loss, fatigue, and liver damage.

ZEARALENONE (ZEA)

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a Fusarium-produced mycotoxin found in wheat, barley, rice, and maize worldwide. It is hepatotoxic, hematotoxic, immunotoxic, and genotoxic, with strong estrogenic activity exceeding that of soy and clover isoflavones. Exposure can cause reproductive changes, thymus atrophy, and impaired immune function, increasing disease susceptibility.

GLIOTOXIN (GTX)

Gliotoxin (GTX), produced by Aspergillus, helps the mold evade immune defenses after its spores infiltrate the lungs. GTX suppresses phagocytic activity and worsening infections. It also inhibits T-cell activation and induces apoptosis in monocytes and dendritic cells, contributing to neurological disorders. These effects can contribute to various neurological disorders.

MYCOPHENOLIC ACID (MPA)

Mycophenolic acid (MPA), produced by Penicillium, is an immunosuppressant that inhibits B and T lymphocyte growth. Exposure increases the risk of infections like Clostridia and Candida and is linked to miscarriage and birth defects during pregnancy.

DIHYDROCITRINONE

Dihydrocitrinone is a metabolite of citrinin (CTN), a mycotoxin from Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Monascus. CTN increases kidney mitochondrial membrane permeability, causing nephropathy, and can enter via ingestion, inhalation, or skin contact. It is carcinogenic in rats and suppresses immune function.

CHAETOGLOBOSIN A

Chaetoglobosin A (CHA), produced by Chaetomium globosum (CG), is common in water-damaged buildings. Highly toxic even at low doses, CHA disrupts cell division and movement. Exposure—mainly through mycotoxins rather than spores—has been linked to neuronal damage, peritonitis, and skin lesions.